| abdominopelvic cavity |
Division of the anterior (ventral) cavity that houses the abdominal and pelvic viscera. |
| acellular |
Tissue or organism not consisting of discrete cells. |
| actin |
Actin is a family of globular, multi-functional proteins that form microfilaments, one of the three major components of the cytoskeleton in eukaryotic cells. Actin participates in many important cellular processes, including muscle contraction, cell motility, cell division and cytokinesis, vesicle and organelle movement, cell signaling, and the maintenance of cell junctions and cell shape. |
| active transport |
Uses energy to move molecules against the concentration gradient (area of lower concentration to area of higher concentration). |
| adenosine triphosphate (ATP) |
Coenzyme found in all lifeforms, that is important for metabolism as an energy molecule. |
| adipocytes |
Lipid storage cells. |
| adipose |
Also known as fat tissue, is a specialised type of connective tissue that serves several functions in the body. Its primary role is to store energy in the form of fat, but it also provides insulation and protection for organs. |
| agonist |
An agonist is a molecule that activates a receptor to produce a biological response. |
| algae |
Most often protists, but sometimes bacteria, that lack the specialised structures found in plants, such as roots, leaves and stems. |
| alpha (α)-helix |
Type of secondary protein structure formed by folding the polypeptide into a helix shape with hydrogen bonds stabilising the structure. |
| amino acids |
A protein's monomer that has a central carbon or alpha carbon to which an amino group, a carboxyl group, a hydrogen, and an R group or side chain is attached; the R group is different for all 20 common amino acids. |
| amphitrichous |
Flagellum or tufts of flagellum at each end of the cell. |
| anabolism |
Simpler molecules are combined into more complex substances. |
| anaphase |
Fourth phase of mitosis after metaphase. Sister chromatids are pulled apart and each chromatid is now a chromosome. |
| anatomical position |
Standard reference position used for describing locations and directions of anatomical structures in the human body. |
| anatomy |
Science that studies the form and composition of the body’s structures. |
| anions |
Negatively charged ion. |
| anoxygenic |
A type of photosynthesis that does not produce oxygen. |
| antagonist |
An antagonist is a molecule that blocks or inhibits the action of an agonist at a receptor, preventing a biological response. |
| anterior |
In front of or front. |
| antigen |
Any substance that induces an immune response by the body to that substance. |
| apoptosis |
Also known as programmed cell death, is a normal and controlled cellular process where a cell is instructed to die because it is no longer needed or because it may pose a threat to the organism. |
| archaea |
Unicellular prokaryotic organisms similar to bacteria but with a different evolutionary history. |
| arthropods |
Diverse group of invertebrate animals that have an exoskeleton (a hard, external covering), a segmented body, and jointed appendages. They include insects, spiders, centipedes, and crabs. |
| astrocytes |
Type of glial cell found in the central nervous system, particularly in the brain and spinal cord. They are the most abundant glial cells in the brain and play a vital role in maintaining the health and proper functioning of the nervous system. |
| atom |
Smallest part of a substance that uniquely defines a chemical element and cannot be broken down while retaining element properties. |
| atomic number |
Number of protons in a nucleus. |
| ATP |
Coenzyme found in all lifeforms, that is important for metabolism as an energy molecule. |
| ATPases |
Also known as ATP synthases, they are a class of enzymes that catalyse the decomposition of ATP (adenosine triphosphate) into ADP (adenosine diphosphate) and a free phosphate ion. |
| autocrine signals |
The signalling cell can also bind to the ligand being released enabling signalling to the same or a similar cell. |
| autocrine signalling |
Form of cell signalling in which a cell secretes a molecule, such as a hormone or growth factor, that binds to receptors on the same cell, leading to changes in the cell. Essentially, the cell targets itself, and the signalling molecule affects the cell that produced it. |
| autoinducers |
Signalling molecules secreted by bacteria to communicate with other bacteria of the same kind. |
| autorhythmic |
Ability of certain cells to generate a rhythm or regular pattern of electrical activity spontaneously. |
| autotrophs |
Able to fix inorganic carbon and synthesise organic molecules from carbon dioxide. |
| axial |
Horizontal plane at right angles to the sagittal and frontal planes, slicing the body into a superior (upper) and inferior (lower) portions. The obtained cuts are transverse or axial views. |
| axon |
Specialised extension of a neuron that conducts electrical impulses away from the neuron's cell body towards other neurons or effector cells, such as other neurons, muscles or glands. |
| bacteria |
Unicellular prokaryotic organisms abundant in most environments. Most bacteria are harmless or helpful, but some are pathogenic. |
| bacterial capsule |
Polysaccharide layer that integrates firmly around bacterial cell wall, offers protection to the cell and enhances the cells’ ability to cause disease. |
| basement membrane |
Thin, fibrous, extracellular matrix of tissue that separates the lining of an internal or external body surface (such as epithelial or endothelial tissue) from underlying connective tissue. |
| basophils |
Least common type of white blood cell, or leukocyte, making up less than 1% of the total leukocyte population in the blood. Despite their rarity, basophils play important roles in the immune system, particularly in the response to allergies and parasites. |
| beta (β)-pleated sheet |
Covalently linked amino acid chains linked to adjacent chains by hydrogen bonds to form an accordion-like sheet. |
| binary fission |
Binary fission is a method of asexual reproduction used by many prokaryotic organisms, including bacteria and archaea. |
| biofilms |
A colony of bacteria attached to a biotic or abiotic surface enclosed within a matrix of extracellular polymeric substances produced by the colony. |
| canaliculi |
Singular: canaliculus, are tiny, microscopic channels or passageways in the bone matrix that connect lacunae, the small cavities that house the bone cells (osteocytes), to each other and to the central Haversian canal in an osteon. |
| carbohydrates |
Biological macromolecule in which the ratio of carbon to hydrogen and to oxygen is 1:2:1; carbohydrates serve as energy sources and structural support in cells and form arthropods' cellular exoskeleton. |
| cartilage |
Type of firm, flexible connective tissue found in various parts of the body. It is less rigid than bone but more rigid than muscle, and its primary function is to provide support, but unlike bone, cartilage can bend a bit. |
| catabolism |
More complex substances are broken down into simpler molecules. |
| catalysts |
Substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction by lowering the energy barrier of the reaction's transition state, but remains unchanged and un-consumed at the end of the reaction. |
| cations |
Positively charged ion. |
| caudal |
Towards the tail. |
| cell cycle |
Life cycle of a single cell, from its birth until its division into two new daughter cells. |
| cell membrane |
An antagonist is a molecule that blocks or inhibits the action of an agonist at a receptor, preventing a biological response. |
| chemical synapse |
Chemical signal is released from a neurotransmitter to communicate with target neuron. |
| chemoheterotrophs |
Chemotrophs that can use organic and inorganic compounds as energy. |
| chemolithoautotrophs |
Autotrophs that obtain energy from inorganic compounds. |
| chemolithotrophs |
Chemotrophs that can use organic and inorganic compounds as energy. |
| chemoorganotrophs |
Chemotrophs that can use organic compounds as energy sources. |
| chemoreceptors |
Specialised sensory receptors that convert chemical signals in the environment. |
| chemotaxis |
Chemotaxis is a biological process in which cells or organisms move in response to a chemical stimulus. The movement can be either toward (positive chemotaxis) or away from (negative chemotaxis) the source of the chemical signal. |
| chemotrophs |
Obtain energy from chemical compounds. |
| chiasmata |
Chiasmata (singular: chiasma) are the points at which paired chromosomes (homologous chromosomes) physically cross over each other during the process of meiosis. |
| chloroplasts |
Found within plant cells and algae and are the organelles where photosynthesis occurs. |
| cholesterol |
Fat-like, waxy steroid mainly synthesised in the liver and is an important precursor for many steroid hormones, vitamins E and K, and bile salts. |
| chondrocytes |
Cartilage cells. |
| chromosomes |
Made of organised and packaged DNA in the form of genes and are found within the cell nucleus. |
| chronic |
Health condition or disease that persists over a long period of time. |
| chronotype |
Behavioural manifestation of an individual's internal body clock, or circadian rhythm. It essentially categorises a person's natural inclination toward being more active and alert at certain times of the day. |
| cilia |
Hair-like organelle found in large numbers on some cells allowing movement or propulsion. |
| circadian rhythm |
Internal perception of the daily cycle of light and dark based on retinal activity related to sunlight. |
| cohesion |
Like molecules sticking together. |
| collagen |
Key structural protein that forms the connective tissue throughout our body, from skin to bones, muscles, tendons, and ligaments. |
| columnar epithelial |
Tall and narrow shaped epithelium cells, with the nucleus located toward base. |
| connective tissues |
One of the four basic types of tissue found in the body. Serves a "connecting" or supportive role, binding, supporting, protecting, and insulating various other tissues and organs in the body. |
| control centre |
Component of a feedback system that compares values to the normal range. Deviations cause the activation of an effector. |
| coronal plane |
Vertical plane at right angle to the sagittal plane that divides the body into anterior (front) and posterior (back) portions. |
| covalent bond |
Equal sharing of one or more electron pairs by two or more atoms. |
| cranial |
Towards the head. |
| cranial cavity |
Interior space of the skull that houses the brain. |
| cuboidal epithelial cells |
Cube shaped epithelium cells with a central nucleus. |
| cyclin-dependent kinases |
Positive cell cycle regulator when bound to cyclins to form a complex. These enzymes phosphorylate and activate cyclin proteins enabling the action of cyclins to advance cell replication to the next phase. |
| cyclins |
Proteins associated with progression of cell cycle. |
| cystic fibrosis |
Cystic fibrosis (CF) is a genetic disorder that affects mainly the lungs, but also the pancreas, liver, kidneys, and intestine. It is caused by mutations in the CFTR gene, which encodes a protein called the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator. |
| cytokine interferon-gamma |
Category of small proteins that are important in cell signalling. |
| cytoplasm |
Gel-like substance composed of water and dissolved chemicals. |
| cytoplasmic |
Gel-like substance composed of water and dissolved chemicals. |
| cytoskeletal |
Gel-like substance composed of water and dissolved chemicals. |
| deep |
Farther from the surface. |
| dendrites |
Branched extensions of a neuron that act as the main information receivers for the cell. |
| depolarised |
Depolarisation is a term used in biology to describe a change in a cell's membrane potential, specifically the voltage inside the cell when compared to voltage outside of the cell. Depolarisation occurs when the intracellular environment becomes more positively charged (less negative). It's a crucial process in the functioning of nerve and muscle cells. |
| diffusion |
Movement of molecules along the concentration gradient. |
| diploid |
Following the fusion of two haploid cells, a diploid cell is formed and contains two sets of chromosomes. |
| diploid cell |
Following the fusion of two haploid cells, a diploid cell is formed and contains two sets of chromosomes. |
| disaccharides |
Two sugar monomers that a glycosidic bond links. |
| distal |
Away or farthest away from the trunk or the point of origin of the body part. |
| DNA |
‘Deoxyribonucleic acid’. Contains genetic information for cell function, growth and division. |
| DNA genome |
Full complement of DNA within a cell organised into smaller, discrete units called genes, arranged on chromosomes and plasmids. |
| dorsal |
Towards the back of the body. |
| down-regulation |
Reduction in the number of cell-surface receptors to reduce or suppress the cells response to stimulus. |
| effector |
Component of a feedback system that stimulates a change and returns feedback value to the normal range. |
| efflux pumps |
Membrane proteins found in the cell membranes of both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. They play a vital role in transporting various substrates, including ions, drugs, and metabolic products, out of the cell or into specific compartments within the cell. |
| elastic cartilage |
Also known as yellow cartilage, is named "elastic" because of its high content of elastic fibres, which gives it both flexibility and resilience. |
| elastic fibres |
Type of connective tissue composed of the proteins elastin and fibrillin. These fibres provide strength and flexibility to tissues and allow them to return to their original shape after being stretched or contracted. |
| electrical synapse |
Direct connection between neurons allowing movement of ions from one cell to the next via gap junctions. |
| electron |
Subatomic particle with a negative charge that are bound or unbound to all atoms. |
| electron transfer |
Movement of an electron from one element to another. |
| elements |
Made of atoms and is a substance that cannot be degraded or altered chemically into another substance. |
| endocrine cells |
System of glands and hormones that regulate many of the body's key functions by releasing hormones directly into the bloodstream. The endocrine system is vital for maintaining homeostasis and orchestrating complex physiological processes throughout the body. |
| endocrine signalling |
Type of intercellular communication that involves the secretion of hormones by endocrine glands into the bloodstream. |
| endocrine signals |
Signalling molecule (hormone) enters the blood stream to signal a distant cell with a receptor specific to the signalling molecule. |
| endocrine |
System of glands and hormones that regulate many of the body's key functions by releasing hormones directly into the bloodstream. The endocrine system is vital for maintaining homeostasis and orchestrating complex physiological processes throughout the body. |
| endocytosis |
Absorption of materials into a cell. |
| endomembrane system |
Series of membranous tubules, sacs and flattened disks in eukaryotic cells that synthesise many cell components and move materials around within the cell. |
| endoplasmic reticulum (ER) |
Interconnected array of tubules and cisternae with single lipid bilayer. Made up of rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) and smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER). |
| endothermic |
Endothermic organisms are those that can regulate their body temperature by producing heat metabolically and by insulating the body to reduce heat loss. |
| enzymes |
Catalyst in a biochemical reaction that is usually a complex or conjugated protein. |
| eosinophils |
Type of white blood cell, or leukocyte, and are part of the body's immune system. They make up about 1-6% of the white blood cells in the bloodstream and are one of the types of cells classified as granulocytes, along with neutrophils and basophils. |
| epithelial tissues |
Also known as epithelium, it is one of the four main types of tissue in animals. It covers surfaces both internally and externally. |
| EPS |
Organic polymers synthesised by microorganisms involved in colony aggregation as a biofilm and important for bacterial interactions with their environment. |
| equilibrium |
Sense of balance that includes sensations of position and movement of the head. |
| erythrocytes |
Red blood cells (RBCs). |
| essential fatty acids |
Fatty acids that are required for physiological processes and cannot be synthesised by the body. |
| eukaryotes |
Plants, animals, protozoans, algae and fungi. |
| eukaryotic |
Plants, animals, protozoans, algae and fungi. |
| evaporation |
Process of turning from liquid into vapour. |
| excitable cells |
Specialised cells that have the ability to generate and propagate electrical signals known as action potentials. |
| exocellular |
Anything located or occurring outside a cell. |
| exocytosis |
Secretory vesicles release the contents to the cell’s exterior. |
| exoskeleton |
External hard shell or rigid structure that supports and protects an animal's body. |
| extracellular matrix |
Three-dimensional network of proteins and molecules that surround cells to give structure and provide support. |
| extracellular polymeric substance (EPS) matrix |
Organic polymers synthesised by microorganisms involved in colony aggregation as a biofilm and important for bacterial interactions with their environment. |
| facilitated diffusion |
Diffusion of molecules across the plasma membrane with assistance from membrane proteins. |
| fibroblasts |
Main cell of connective tissue, responsible for producing fibres. |
| fibrocartilage |
Type of cartilage that contains a high proportion of collagen fibres, which gives it significant tensile strength and rigidity. It's less compressible and more dense than other types of cartilage (hyaline and elastic cartilage), which makes it particularly well-suited for areas of the body that require a high degree of support or must withstand heavy pressure. |
| fibrous connective tissues |
Type of connective tissue in the body that is composed of parallel bundles of collagen fibers, which give it high tensile strength, i.e., the ability to resist being pulled apart. |
| flagella |
Structures used by cells to move in aqueous environments – propeller-like. |
| frontal plane |
Two-dimensional, vertical plane that divides the body or organ into anterior and posterior portions. |
| Fungi |
Eukaryotic organisms that are extremely diverse. Includes yeasts, moulds and mushrooms. |
| gametes |
Reproductive cells that combine during sexual reproduction to form a new organism. |
| gap junctions |
Specialised intercellular connections that allow direct communication between the cytoplasm of adjacent cells. They enable various molecules, ions, and electrical impulses to pass directly from one cell to an adjacent cell, facilitating coordination and synchronization of activities among connected cells. |
| genes |
Functional length of DNA that provides the genetic information necessary to build a protein. |
| genome |
Full complement of DNA within a cell organised into smaller, discrete units called genes, arranged on chromosomes and plasmids. |
| genomic DNA |
Full complement of DNA within a cell organised into smaller, discrete units called genes, arranged on chromosomes and plasmids. |
| glia |
Glial cells, or simply glia, are non-neuronal cells found in the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and the peripheral nervous system. They play several crucial supportive roles in the nervous system, maintaining homeostasis, forming myelin, and providing support and protection for neurons. |
| glucose |
Simple sugar (monosaccharide) that is an important energy source in living organisms and is a component of many carbohydrates. |
| Golgi apparatus |
Stacked membranous disks called dictyosomes where lipids and proteins are modified by enzymes and repackaged for transport within the cell, to the cell membrane for use or for exocytosis from the cell. |
| ground substance |
Nonliving substance made of organic and inorganic substances, typically giving a gel-like consistency. |
| haploid cells |
Cells that contain a single copy of each homologous chromosome. Includes sex cells (sperm and egg cells) in humans. |
| heterotrophic |
Organisms that cannot carbon fix and therefore obtains energy by ingesting other plants or animals. |
| histones |
Proteins that play a critical role in organising DNA within the nucleus of eukaryotic cells. |
| homeostasis |
Steady state of body systems that living organisms maintain. |
| homeostatic |
Steady state of body systems that living organisms maintain. |
| hormone |
Secretion of an endocrine organ that travels via the bloodstream or lymphatics to induce a response in target cells or tissues in another part of the body. |
| hormones |
Secretion of an endocrine organ that travels via the bloodstream or lymphatics to induce a response in target cells or tissues in another part of the body. |
| human growth hormone |
Growth promoting hormone secreted by the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland and essential from growth in all tissues of the body. |
| hyaline cartilage |
Type of connective tissue that provides support and flexibility to different parts of the body. It has a glossy, glass-like appearance when cut and viewed under a microscope. |
| hydrogen bonds |
Attachment of a covalently bonded hydrogen atom to another atom. |
| hydrophilic |
Describes a substance or structure attracted to water. |
| hydrophobic |
Property of a molecule to be repelled by, or not having an affinity for, water. |
| inferior |
Towards the feet. |
| intercalated disc |
Specialised structures found between the cells (myocytes) of cardiac muscle tissue. They represent complex junctional complexes that are responsible for linking adjacent cardiac muscle cells together, facilitating the coordinated contraction of the heart. |
| intercellular signalling |
Communication from one cell to another. |
| intermediate filaments |
Structural elements of animal cells comprised of anti-parallel dimers. |
| interphase |
Entire life cycle of a cell, excluding mitosis. |
| intracellular signalling |
Communication within a cell, usually triggered in response to extracellular stimulation. |
| ionic bonds |
Attachment due to electron transfer from one atom or molecule to another atom or molecule. Also known as electrovalent bond. |
| ions |
Positively or negatively charged atom or molecule. |
| isotopes |
Different form of the same element that has the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons. |
| jet lag |
Mismatch between internal circadian cycles and the environment that result in several symptoms. |
| kinases |
Type of enzyme that catalyses the transfer of a phosphate group from a high-energy molecule, such as adenosine triphosphate (ATP), to a specific target molecule, typically a protein. This process is known as phosphorylation. |
| lacunae |
Term used in biology to refer to the small spaces or cavities within the hard matrix of bone and cartilage where cells reside. |
| leukocytes |
Also known as white blood cells, are a key part of the immune system. |
| ligand |
A chemical messenger molecule that irreversibly binds a specific protein receptor to form a complex. |
| ligands |
Molecule that irreversibly binds with a receptor protein molecule. |
| lipid |
Macromolecule that is nonpolar and insoluble in water. |
| lophotrichous |
Flagella with a tuft at one end of the cell. |
| low-density lipoprotein (LDL) |
Circulating fat that transports cholesterol. Commonly known as ‘bad cholesterol’. |
| lymphocytes |
Type of white blood cell that are fundamental to the immune system. They are responsible for immune responses that provide long-term protection against pathogens. |
| lysosomes |
Membrane-bound organelles of endomembrane system containing digestive enzymes. |
| macromolecules |
Large molecule necessary for life that is built from smaller organic molecules |
| macronutrients |
Essential nutrients required for healthy functioning in large quantities. |
| macrophages |
Type of white blood cell in the immune system that play several roles in the body's defence against disease. This name reflects their function as phagocytes, cells that can engulf and digest cellular debris, foreign substances, microbes, cancer cells, and anything else that does not have the types of proteins specific to healthy body cells on its surface, in a process called phagocytosis. |
| mammals |
Eukaryotic, warm blooded, vertebrate animals characterised by having mammary glands. |
| mass number |
Sum of the number of protons and neutrons in an element. Also known as atomic mass. |
| matter |
Composed of elements and is something that occupies space and has mass. |
| matrix |
Typically refers to the extracellular matrix (ECM), a three-dimensional network of extracellular macromolecules such as collagen, enzymes, and glycoproteins that provide structural and biochemical support to surrounding cells. |
| medial |
Towards the median. |
| meiosis |
The process by which haploid cells are formed. Consists of one round of chromosome duplication and two rounds of nuclear division. |
| melatonin |
Important hormone in the regulation of sleep-wake cycles. |
| membranes |
Selectively permeable barrier that separates the interior of a cell from its external environment. |
| metaphase plate |
Also known as equatorial plane. Imaginary plate roughly midway between two poles of the cell that occurs during mitosis and meiosis where sister chromatids line up prior to separation. |
| metaphase |
Third phase of mitosis and meiosis, characterised by the linear alignment of sister chromatids in the centre of the cell. |
| MHC (major histocompatibility complex) molecules |
Gene cluster whose proteins present antigens to T cells. |
| microbiome |
Community of microorganisms that live in a particular environment and their genes. |
| microfilaments |
Thinnest of the cytoskeletal filaments; composed of actin subunits that function in muscle contraction and cellular structural support. |
| microglial |
Microglial cells, or simply microglia, are a type of glial cell located throughout the brain and spinal cord. They are the resident macrophages of the central nervous system (CNS) and play a critical role in immune defence, inflammation, and maintenance of homeostasis within the CNS. |
| microglial cells |
Microglial cells, or simply microglia, are a type of glial cell located throughout the brain and spinal cord. They are the resident macrophages of the central nervous system (CNS) and play a critical role in immune defence, inflammation, and maintenance of homeostasis within the CNS. |
| micronutrients |
Essential nutrients required for healthy functioning in small quantities (vitamins and minerals). |
| microtubules |
Form part of the cytoskeleton to provide support and are composed of beta and alpha tubulin. |
| midline |
Median vertical line that runs the length of the body separating it into left and right hemispheres. |
| midsagittal plane |
Vertical plane passing through the centre of the body (midline) that cuts it longitudinally into right and left halves. |
| mitochondria |
Large, complex organelles in which aerobic cellular respiration occurs in eukaryotic cells. Often referred to as the ‘powerhouse’ of the cell. |
| mitotic phase |
Part of the cell cycle which includes mitosis and cytokinesis. In this phase DNA replicated in the interphase phase is separated and the cell divides. |
| mitotic |
Part of the cell cycle which includes mitosis and cytokinesis. In this phase DNA replicated in the interphase phase is separated and the cell divides. |
| molecules |
Two or more atoms held together by chemical bonds that make up the smallest fundamental unit of a chemical compound. |
| monocyte |
Type of white blood cell, or leukocyte, that play a crucial role in the body's immune system. They are the largest type of leukocyte and make up about 2-10% of the total leukocyte population in the human body. |
| monosaccharides |
Single unit or monomer of carbohydrates. |
| monotrichous |
Singular flagellum typically located at one end of the cell. |
| morphology |
Science investigating the size, shape and structure of organisms. |
| morphologies |
Science investigating the size, shape and structure of organisms. |
| mucosa |
Mucosa (plural: mucosae) refers to the moist tissue layer that lines certain parts of the inside of the body. It forms the innermost layer of certain organs and body cavities and serves various functions depending on its location. |
| myosin |
Family of motor proteins found in eukaryotic tissues that is best known for its role in muscle contraction. It functions by interacting with another protein called actin, and together, myosin and actin are responsible for producing the force and movement seen in muscle cells. |
| negative feedback |
Homeostatic mechanism that tends to stabilise an upset in the body’s physiological condition by preventing an excessive response to a stimulus, typically as the stimulus is removed. |
| neuron |
Also known as a nerve cell, is the fundamental unit of the nervous system, responsible for transmitting information throughout the body. Neurons are electrically excitable cells that function to process and transmit information through electrical and chemical signals. |
| neurotransmitter |
Chemical substance that transmits signals across a synapse from one neuron (nerve cell) to another "target" neuron, muscle cell, or gland cell. |
| neutrons |
Subatomic particle with no electrical charge, present in the nuclei of atoms except hydrogen, and slightly higher mass as a proton. |
| nonpolar |
Symmetric distribution of electrical charge, resulting in no areas of positive or negative charge. |
| nuclear envelope |
Complex nuclear membrane that surrounds the nucleus, consisting of two distinct lipid bilayers contiguous with each other. |
| nuclear pores |
Large, rosette-shaped protein complexes that control the movement of materials into and out of the nucleus. |
| nuclei |
Found in eukaryotic cells and contains the DNA genome. |
| nucleolus |
Found in eukaryotic cells and contains the DNA genome. |
| nucleus |
Membrane-bound organelle found in most eukaryotic cells, often considered the control center of the cell because it houses the cell's genetic material, DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). |
| oblique |
At an angle. |
| oils |
Hydrophobic and lipophilic, nonpolar, viscous fluid. |
| oligodendrocytes |
Type of glial cell found in the central nervous system (CNS), including the brain and spinal cord. They play a crucial role in supporting and insulating neurons by forming the myelin sheath. |
| osmosis |
Movement of water across a semipermeable membrane from areas of low concentration to areas of high concentration. |
| osseous |
Refers to anything related to, composed of, or resembling bone. |
| osteoblasts |
Cells responsible for the formation of new bone, a process known as ossification. Osteoblasts secrete a matrix of organic compounds, including collagen, which provides a framework for bone growth. |
| osteoclasts |
Large, multinucleated cells that are responsible for the breakdown and resorption of bone tissue, a process known as bone resorption. |
| osteocytes |
Mature bone cells that originate from osteoblasts. |
| osteons |
Also known as a Haversian system, is the primary structural unit of compact, or cortical, bone. |
| oxygenic |
A type of photosynthesis that produces oxygen. |
| paracrine signalling |
Type of cell-to-cell communication in which a cell produces a signal to induce changes in nearby cells, altering the behaviour or differentiation of those cells. |
| paracrine signals |
Signalling molecule diffuse through extracellular matrix and target nearby cells. |
| parasagittal plane |
Sagittal plane not on the midline resulting in two unequal left- and right-side views. |
| passive transport |
Movement of molecules along the concentration gradient that does not require energy. |
| pathogenicity |
Ability of an organism, typically a microorganism, to cause disease in another organism. |
| pathogens |
Disease-causing organisms. |
| peptide |
Short chain of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds. Peptides are smaller than proteins and can be thought of as small proteins or protein fragments. The distinction between peptides and proteins is somewhat arbitrary, but peptides are generally considered to contain fewer than 50 amino acids. |
| peptide bond |
Bond formed between two amino acids by a dehydration reaction. |
| peptidoglycan |
Complex sugar and amino acid polymer that forms a tough, protective mesh-like structure in the cell walls of bacteria, providing structural integrity and shape. |
| peripheral |
Situated on the outer limits or edge. |
| peritrichous |
Flagella that cover the entire surface of a bacteria cell. |
| peroxisomes |
Membrane-bound organelles that form independently in the cytoplasm from synthesis of peroxin proteins by free ribosomes and incorporation of these proteins in existing peroxisomes which then divide to multiply. |
| phagocytose |
Immune cell that surrounds, ingests and destroys foreign material. |
| phagocytosis |
Immune cell that surrounds, ingests and destroys foreign material. |
| phenotypic |
Set of observable characteristics, such as height, eye colour. |
| phospholipids |
Membranes' major constituent; comprised of two fatty acids and a phosphate-containing group attached to a glycerol backbone. |
| phospholipid-derived fatty acid analysis (PLFA) |
PLFA analysis estimates the total biomass of microbiota community composition by analysing cell membrane fatty acids. |
| photoautotrophs |
Generates energy using sunlight and carbon. |
| phototrophs |
Obtain energy from sunlight. |
| photoreceptive |
Ability to detect or respond to light. |
| physiology |
Science that studies the chemistry, biochemistry, and physics of the body’s functions. |
| planktonic |
Free-swimming, unicellular bacteria. |
| plasma membrane |
Selectively permeable barrier that separates the interior of a cell from its external environment. |
| plasma |
Liquid component of blood in which the blood cells are suspended in. Primarily consists of water, but also contains other substances such as proteins, hormones, nutrients, etc |
| plasmids |
Small, circular, double-stranded DNA molecules, often found in bacteria, less common in archaea and eukaryotic organisms. |
| platelets |
Also known as thrombocytes, are small, colourless cell fragments in our blood that form clots and stop or prevent bleeding. |
| polymeric |
Polymeric refers to a structure that is made up of smaller, repeating units called monomers, which are covalently bonded together in a chain-like structure to form a larger, more complex molecule known as a polymer. |
| polypeptides |
Long chain of amino acids that peptide bonds link. |
| polysaccharide |
Membranes' major constituent; comprised of two fatty acids and a phosphate-containing group attached to a glycerol backbone. |
| positive feedback |
Mechanism that intensifies a change in the body’s physiological condition in response to a stimulus. |
| posterior |
In behind or behind. |
| prefix |
Placed in front of a word to change its meaning. |
| primary structure |
Polypeptide chain sequence of amino acids. |
| prokaryotes |
Archaea and bacteria. |
| prokaryotic |
Archaea and bacteria. |
| prometaphase |
Second phase of mitosis and meiosis. Chromosomes continue to condense, kinetochores appear at centromere and kinetochore microtubules attach. |
| prone |
Face down. |
| prophase |
First stage in mitosis and meiosis. Nuclear envelope begins to break down, spindle fibres start to appear, and chromosome condense and are visible. |
| protein |
Large, complex molecules that play critical roles in the body, such as assisting in metabolism, transport, stimulation, and cellular replication. |
| proteins |
Biological macromolecule comprised of one or more amino acid chains. |
| protists |
Informal grouping of eukaryotes that are not plants, animal or fungi. |
| proton |
Subatomic particle with positive electrical charge, present in the nuclei of all atoms and slightly lower mass of a neutron. |
| protozoa |
Protists that provide nutrients for other organisms and make up the backbone of many food webs. |
| proximal |
Closer or towards the trunk or the point of origin of the body part. |
| quarks |
Subatomic particles carrying fraction of an electric charge. |
| quorum sensing |
Communication between bacteria cells about cell population density that bacteria can then respond to by adjusting gene expression within the cell. |
| receptor |
Protein molecule that contains a binding site for another specific molecule (called a ligand). |
| receptors |
Proteins either on the cell surface or inside a target cell that bind to a specific ligand and receives chemical signal. |
| ribosome |
Site of protein synthesis. Converts mRNA into amino acid chain that is folded into a protein and further processed in the Golgi apparatus. |
| rotating shift work |
Work schedule with frequent changes from early to late on a daily or weekly basis. |
| regulatory particle |
A component of the proteasome, responsible for recognition of proteins tagged for degradation. |
| RNA |
Ribonucleic acid, similar in structure to DNA. Single stranded and shorter than DNA, RNA carries genetic information to ribosomes to be translated into proteins. |
| root |
Derived from Greek or Latin term that expresses the basic meaning of the term. |
| sagittal plane |
Two-dimensional, vertical plane that divides the body or organ into right and left sides. |
| saturated fatty acids |
Long-chain hydrocarbon with single covalent bonds in the carbon chain; the number of hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon skeleton is maximised. |
| SCN |
Located in the anterior hypothalamus, regulates most circadian cycles in the body. |
| secondary structure |
Structure comprised of arrangements of adjacent polypeptide chains amino acid residues. |
| sensor |
Biological structure that detects and responds to changes in the environment or within the organism itself. |
| set point |
Ideal value for a physiological parameter; the level or small range within which a physiological parameter such as blood pressure is stable and optimally healthful, that is, within its parameters of homeostasis. |
| sewage |
Produced wastewater from a community of people. |
| signalling cells |
Cells that release chemical signals in the form of ligands. |
| simple epithelia |
Single layer of cells. |
| sleep debt |
Insufficient sleep on a chronic basis accumulates a sleep debt which results in decreased levels of alertness and mental efficiency. |
| sleep regulation |
The brain’s control of switching between sleep and wakefulness in coordination of this cycle with the outside world. |
| solvent |
Molecule, typically a liquid, that can dissolve a solid. |
| spinal cavity |
Division of the dorsal cavity that houses the spinal cord; also referred to as vertebral cavity. |
| squamous epithelial |
Flat, irregular, slightly rounded shape of epithelial cells. |
| steroids |
Type of lipid comprised of four fused hydrocarbon rings forming a planar structure. |
| stimulus |
An event in the external or internal environment that registers as activity in a sensory neuron. |
| stratified epithelia |
Multiple layers of cells staggered on top of one another. |
| striations |
Pattern of stripes visible under the microscope, primarily in skeletal and cardiac muscle tissues. These striations are caused by the arrangement of contractile proteins, mainly actin and myosin, within the muscle cells. |
| subunits |
Assembly of multiple polypeptide chains or protein molecules. |
| suffixes |
Placed at the end of a work which may alter the meaning ie ‘itis’ means inflammation, nephritis. |
| superficial |
Nearer to the surface. |
| superior |
Towards the top of the head. |
| supine |
Face up. |
| suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) |
Located in the anterior hypothalamus, regulates most circadian cycles in the body. |
| surface tension |
Cohesive nature of liquid in which it acts as a stretched elastic membrane, allowing resistance to external force. |
| symbiotic |
Symbiosis refers to a close and often long-term interaction between two or more different biological species. |
| target cells |
Cells that are affected by the chemical signals sent from signalling cells. |
| T cells |
White blood cell, leukocyte, attack pathogens as part of the adaptive immune system. |
| telophase |
Final stage of mitosis and meiosis, preceding cytokinesis, characterised by the formation of two new daughter nuclei. |
| temperature |
Objective measure of hotness and coldness. |
| terminology |
Body of terms specific to a subject of study. |
| tertiary structure |
Polypeptide three-dimensional structure that allows functionality. |
| thermoregulation |
Maintenance of core body temperature within homeostatic range. |
| thoracic cavity |
Division of the anterior (ventral) cavity that houses the heart, lungs, oseophagus and trachea. |
| tonicity |
Ability of a surrounding solution to cause a cell to gain or lose water. |
| trabeculae |
Lattice-like network of bony spicules that form the structural units of spongy (cancellous) bone. |
| traits |
Different forms of a characteristic. |
| transitional |
Rounded epithelium cells arranged in simple layers, but appear stratified. |
| transmembrane |
Refers to something that extends through a biological membrane, most typically a cell membrane. This term is often used to describe certain types of proteins that span the entirety of the biological membrane. |
| transverse plane |
Two-dimensional, horizontal plane that divides the body or organ into superior and inferior portions. |
| triglycerides |
Fat molecule; consists of three fatty acids linked to a glycerol molecule. Also Triacylglycerol. |
| ubiquitin |
Small protein that targets proteins for destruction. |
| unsaturated fatty acid |
Long-chain hydrocarbon that has one or more double bonds in the hydrocarbon chain. |
| upregulated |
Increase in the number of cell-surface receptors to increase the cells response to stimulus. |
| van der Waals interactions |
Weak attractive forces with nonspecific, nondirectional attraction of outer electron clouds of adjacent atoms. |
| ventral |
Towards the front of the body. |
| viruses |
Acellular microorganisms that incorporate themselves into a host cell, co-opting cellular mechanisms to multiply. |
